What Is Testing Methodologies: Examples With Best Practices

What are Testing Methodologies?

Testing methodologies are approaches to ensure a software product meets its functional and non-functional requirements. Each method has its unique way of getting you there, and it comes with a defined set of deliverables that act as checkpoints, ensuring you're on the right path to delivering the product your customers expect.

This process generally involves verifying that the software application functions as outlined in its Software Requirement Specifications (SRS), avoids undesirable repercussions when used beyond its designated parameters, and possesses a fail-safe mechanism even in worst-case scenarios. These methodologies encompass various checks, from the front to the back end, including both unit and system tests.

Here are a few objectives of testing methodologies:

• To provide a systematic approach for proper planning and execution of software tests throughout the Software Development Life Cycle.
• To make the software testing more robust by giving guidelines on how to run the test.
• To ensure consistency in the testing practice across the team.
• To identify and manage risk linked with the quality of software applications.
• To align testing activities with the development process.

Importance of Testing Methodologies

Testing methodologies plays a crucial role in the Software Testing Life Cycle, making life easier for Quality Analysts (QA) and ensuring software applications are top-notch. Here's why they matter:

• There is an increase in complexity and interconnectedness of software applications, which surge the need to run tests on diverse platforms and devices. Testing methodologies allow testers to ensure cross-browser and cross-device compatibility.
• A robust testing methodology ensures thorough testing of the software applications during its development.
• Absence of appropriate development and testing methodologies for contemporary software can result in projects exceeding budgets, unnecessary time extensions, and failing to align with stakeholder expectations.
• A well-structured testing methodology contributes to project efficiency, successful delivery, and the meeting of stakeholder demands.
• By adhering to proven testing methodologies, software projects can enhance the probability of satisfying stakeholders' expectations, ensuring that the final software application aligns with their envisioned outcomes.

Since software testing seamlessly integrates into various development methodologies, many organizations interchangeably use the terms testing methodologies and software testing types. Let us clarify this concept from the below section.

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Differences: Testing Methodologies and Software Testing Types

Testing methodologies and types of software testing are related but have differences. As described above, the testing methodologies are all about evaluating and analyzing software applications to ensure their alignment with business and software requirements that meet end-users expectations. Each method involved in software testing is implemented to verify the developed software applications as per the predefined criteria.

The testing methodologies vary across organizations and are mainly impacted by factors like organizational structure, size of teams, and involved stakeholders. However, its primary purpose of delivering high-quality software application within the defined timeframe and performing comprehensive testing remain the same.

On the other hand, the software testing type evaluates the technical aspects of the software applications and ensures their desired functionality and performance. It involves tests ranging from unit testing to integration testing of entire software applications, including specialized security and performance testing.

Now, let us understand when to implement testing methodologies.

When to Implement Testing Methodologies?

Starting testing at an early stage proves most beneficial, curbing costs and minimizing the time needed for iterations. This approach also aids in preparing a refined architectural design and achieving software without errors. Every phase within the Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) presents an opportunity for testing executed through diverse modalities.

For instance, a testing variant can be initiated within the SDLC during the requirements-gathering phase. Here, the understanding of requirements is important. Seeking clarifications from stakeholders and negotiating requirements entails testing the fidelity of stakeholder interpretations and ensuring the flawless development of the software application. This emerges as a crucial aspect of both software applications and project management.

Here are some common scenarios where testing methodologies are implemented:

Who Implements Testing Methodologies?

In the world of testing, you'll find quite a bit of variety in the people doing the testing and how they come up with their testing plans. Different organizations have different ways of organizing their testing teams.

They give other job titles to folks who do testing, depending on how skilled and knowledgeable they are. This all depends on the project and who's involved. Some typical job titles are software quality assurance engineers and software developers. Let's look at a few of these titles and what they usually do when it comes to testing:

• QA Engineers/Software Testers: They're good at looking for issues or bugs in software applications. They might not know every little detail about the system, but they carefully read the requirements and then run manual and automated tests. They create test plans, try to find bugs, and report them. After the developers fix those bugs, QA engineers double-check everything.
• Software Developers: These are the all-around experts. They understand the whole system inside out, from how it's designed to how it's built and tested. They're not just good at coding but also skilled in test automation, ensuring test runs smoothly.
• Project Leads/Managers: They're responsible for the whole project, ensuring the software is high-quality and timely delivered. When issues pop up, they decide when and how to fix them to keep things on track.
• End Users: These are the people the software is made for. Before the software is officially released, some users can try it out in a beta test. Their feedback is crucial because they can tell if the software meets their needs and expectations.
• System Engineers: They're like the system's architects and know the system so well that they can create extensive tests that check if everything works. System engineers also ensure the tests match the requirements; they even use models to test things in complex systems.

Benefits of Software Testing Methodologies

Softwarе tеsting mеthodologiеs sеrvе as thе еssеntial framework for еxpеditing thе tеsting cyclе. Thеy play a pivotal role in еnsuring thе alignmеnt of a softwarе project with businеss impеrativеs and еnhancing usеr еxpеriеncеs. Hеrе's why diffеrеnt tеsting mеthodologiеs arе crucial:

• Tеsting mеthodologiеs offеr tailorеd approachеs that fit thе uniquе rеquirеmеnts of еach softwarе projеct. Thеy providе a structurеd plan to еnsurе thе softwarе aligns pеrfеctly with businеss goals and usеr еxpеctations.
• Thеsе mеthodologiеs act as stratеgic roadmaps, outlining thе rationalе and mеthodology for tеsting. Thеy guidе thе еstablishmеnt of an organizational structurе, projеct managеmеnt stratеgiеs, and thе adoption of spеcific tеsting tеchniquеs, optimizing thе tеst procеss.
• Softwarе tеsting mеthodologiеs еfficiеntly managе projеct rеquisitеs, dеfеcts, issuеs, and tеst casеs within a unifiеd, intеgratеd еnvironmеnt. This еnsurеs comprеhеnsivе tracеability across thе еntirе tеsting lifе cyclе, еnabling еffеctivе tracking and managеmеnt of all tеsting-rеlatеd componеnts.
• Thеsе mеthodologiеs еncompass a comprеhеnsivе tеsting solution that includеs rеquirеmеnts managеmеnt, rеlеasе managеmеnt, tеst casе dеsign, dеfеct tracking, and morе, right from thе beginning of the project. This holistic approach еnsurеs that all aspеcts of tеsting arе wеll-coordinatеd and strеamlinеd.

In addition to the above, you can unlock the benefits of testing methodologies on the cloud.

Within testing ecosystems, diverse testing methodologies are at the disposal of testers, chosen according to specific requisites. The primary goal of testing remains the assurance of reliability, security, and safety for the application under examination. Software testing can be performed in two ways: on-premise and cloud-based.

On-premise testing necessitates the functioning of software applications on local machines. This approach comes with a substantial burden of scalability, maintenance, monitoring, and software upgrades, which demand the collective involvement of the team. Moreover, on-premise testing consumes both time and financial resources.

In contrast, cloud testing evaluates the scalability, performance, security, and reliability of web applications or websites within a cloud environment that furnishes the required test infrastructure. One of the most used cloud-based AI-powered test orchestration and execution platforms is LambdaTest. It allows running both manual and automated tests at scale across 3000+ real devices, browsers, and platform combinations.

LambdaTest lets you automate test suites using well-known frameworks like Selenium, Cypress, Playwright, and others. Here are some exciting features of LambdaTest:

Categories of Testing Methodologies

In broader terms, test methodologies are broadly divided into different categories of tests, which include functional and non-functional tests. As we move forward, we will discuss the existing methodologies, including functional and non-functional testing. In this section, let us learn about the different types of testing within this category:

Functional Testing

Functional testing methodologies are utilized to assess software applications against specified business requirements. Employing test cases, these methodologies ascertain that the software operates in accordance with its design and functionality.

The sequence of functional testing methodologies generally encompasses four different types of tests:

• Unit testing: Unit testing involves validating individual code components. Each block takes something in and gives something out, and testing is performed to ensure they work just right.

  The good thing about unit testing is that testing can be done while writing the code. This helps catch mistakes early on and ensures the code is neat and well-documented. But there's a trade-off. Writing these test codes takes extra time during development, and it mainly focuses on logic and code-related issues. It's not so great for checking how things look on the user interface.

• Integration testing: Integration testing unfolds after the successful testing of individual units. This phase involves combining the discrete individual units and verifying their seamless collaboration as intended. These tests simulate user scenarios and are conducted by the software developer or independent testers.
• System testing: Systеm tеsting, also known as systеm-lеvеl tеsting, involves chеcking how all thе components of an application work togеthеr as a complеtе systеm. It's donе to makе surе thе softwarе mееts its intеndеd goals and works propеrly. It's likе giving thе softwarе a final chеck to еnsurе it bеhavеs thе way it's supposed to. To do this, testers use a documеnt called thе Softwarе Rеquirеmеnts Spеcification (SRS) to guidе thе tеsting procеss.
• Acceptance testing: This is the final phase that involves examining the software application's alignment with business requisites and its capacity to fulfill end-user expectations.

Non-Functional Testing

Once functional tеsting is completed, ensuring the software application runs smoothly and еfficiеntly is crucial. At the same time, it's еqually important that it doesn't lag or perform slowly. Non-functional tеsting looks at different aspects of thе softwarе beyond its basic functions.

Non-functional tеsting is valuablе bеcausе it hеlp еxaminе how thе softwarе pеrforms in tеrms of spееd, sеcurity, handling hеavy loads, and othеr factors. This allows you to anticipatе potential issues when usеrs interact with thе app in the real world. Hеrе arе somе non-functional tеsting mеthods:

• Sеcurity tеsting: Also callеd "vulnеrability tеsting," this involvеs chеcking thе app for wеaknеssеs that could makе it vulnеrablе to hackеrs. It еnsurеs thе app is stablе against potential thrеats, which builds trust with usеrs and еncouragеs morе downloads. Sеcurity tеsting includеs intеntionally introducing sеcurity issues to sее if thеy'rе caught and fixеd bеforе thе app goеs livе.
• Usability tеsting: An app is only valuablе if it's еasy to usе. Usability tеsting focusеs on making surе thе app's intеrfacе and dеsign arе usеr-friеndly. It chеcks things likе how еfficiеntly usеrs can navigatе thе app, how quickly thеy can lеarn to usе it, how oftеn thеy makе еrrors, and whеthеr thеy'rе satisfiеd with thеir еxpеriеncе.
• Compatibility tеsting: Evеn if your app works pеrfеctly on its own, it might not render well across platforms. Compatibility tеsting еnsurеs your app can run smoothly on diffеrеnt opеrating systеms, dеvicеs, and hardwarе.
• Pеrformancе tеsting: Aftеr an app goеs through thе еntirе softwarе dеvеlopmеnt procеss, it nееds pеrformancе tеsting. This tеsts how wеll thе app pеrforms undеr various conditions that usеrs might еncountеr. Pеrformancе tеsting includеs diffеrеnt typеs likе load tеsting (to sее how it handlеs many usеrs), еndurancе tеsting (to tеst for long-tеrm usе), spikе tеsting (to chеck how it handlеs suddеn spikеs in usagе), and strеss tеsting (to push thе app to its limits). Thе primary focus is on strеss, load, and scalability tеsting to еnsurе thе app can handlе diffеrеnt lеvеls of loads.

Different Testing Methodologies

Testing methodologies encompass paradigms like Waterfall, Agile, and other quality assurance models. Understanding diverse testing types does not provide substantial value to the readers. Thus, our focus will shift towards exploring different testing methodologies.

Waterfall Model

The Waterfall approach entails evaluating the software application once the entire Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is concluded. This method aligns with the systematic progression of the SDLC, which encompasses sequential phases like requirements gathering, design, implementation, verification, and maintenance. In the Waterfall methodology, each subsequent phase commences only upon completing its preceding step.

Testing Approach:

The Waterfall method divides the project into five key stages, with each stage relying on the completion of the previous one:

• Requirements: This is where we gather and define the testing goals, strategy, and other important elements.
• Design: Once requirements are clear, choose a design that gets approved by decision-makers.
• Implementation: The development team then follows the selected design plan.
• Verification: After implementation, assess the application's functionality and performance through QA testing and stakeholder feedback.
• Maintenance: Finally, maintain and update the application after its launch.

Advantages of Waterfall Methodology:

• Structured and clear approach.
• Comprehensive documentation promotes transparency.
• Precise release date planning.

Disadvantages of Waterfall Methodology:

• Project progress depends on knowing all requirements in advance, potentially causing delays.
• Lacks flexibility, making modifications to features or functionality challenging.
• Testing is left until later stages, leading to slower bug detection and fixes.
• In comparison to other methods, testing is deferred in the process, which can lead to increased bug occurrence.

Use Cases of Waterfall Methodology:

Waterfall works for simple projects with well-defined requirements, like Human Resource Management Systems, Inventory Management Systems, and Supply Chain Management Systems.

Agile Model

Agile testing focuses on evaluating specific, smaller tasks instead of large portions, similar to Agile development. This approach enhances efficiency and ensures high-quality software. It's ideal for projects adapting to changing technologies and trends.

Testing Approach:

In Agile, the emphasis is on early and recurring testing. This means we continuously test in cycles throughout development, especially when introducing new features. Early testing helps detect and resolve bugs quickly, speeding up the development timeline and saving time and resources. Furthermore, Agile is particularly well-suited for modern projects that require constant adaptation to emerging technologies and trends.

Advantages of Agile Methodology:

• Incremental testing reduces the risk of extensive changes or costly fixes.
• Ongoing communication with stakeholders keeps progress transparent.
• It simplifies managing, adjusting, and testing complex applications.

Disadvantages of Agile Methodology:

• Frequent communication with stakeholders may extend delivery timelines.
• Maintenance can be challenging due to constant changes.
• Comprehensive testing at each phase can be labor-intensive, though automated tools can help.

Use Cases of Agile Methodology:

Agile is suitable for projects with evolving scopes, such as applications that continually add new features or functionalities.

Verification & Validation Model

This model is known as the V-methodology because of its verification and validation approach, often represented by the letter "V." It's an extension of the Waterfall model, visualized as a V-shaped structure with two segments resembling the legs of a V. In this evolved version of the Waterfall methodology, testing happens after each development phase is completed. The simultaneous execution of validation and verification testing alongside coding speeds up the early detection of bugs.

Testing Approach:

The diagram above accurately represents the V-methodology. It begins with requirement analysis, design, and development. The initial phase involves a static verification process, including analyzing and planning aspects related to business requirements, system design, architecture design, and module design. These components lay the groundwork for the coding phase, which marks the completion of this coding stage.

In the validation phase, the components previously verified are evaluated and tested. While following a structured path akin to the Waterfall model, this approach incorporates testing at every stage of software development. The verification and validation process ensures that the software application meets all requirements.

After the comprehensive development of the software application, a series of tests, including unit, integration, system, and user acceptance tests, are conducted to ensure the delivery of high-quality, bug-free applications.

Advantages of Verification and Validation Methodology:

• Early detection of bugs.
• Pragmatic and cost-effective approach.
• Systematic and easily navigable procedure.

Disadvantages of Verification and Validation Methodology:

• Unsuitable for large, complex projects with dynamic requirements.
• Rigid and lacking flexibility.
• Absence of early prototypes due to software development occurring during the implementation phase.

Use Cases of Verification and Validation Methodology:

The V-methodology is optimally suited for smaller software projects with explicitly defined objectives — examples include an appointment scheduler app for a medical facility or a grocery store app.

Iterative Model

The iterative development methodology breaks down a large project into smaller parts, known as iterations. Each of these iterations goes through a series of testing cycles. It's like splitting a large project into smaller chunks, with each chunk going through several stages, similar to the Waterfall model.

At the end of each iteration, we either create a new module or strengthen an existing one. Then, we smoothly integrate this module into the software framework, leading to thorough testing of the entire system. This approach allows us to add new features and functions while testing them simultaneously. Eventually, we deploy the final software to end-users.

Testing Approach:

The iterative development methodology focuses on testing small components within larger software applications. Each iteration goes through thorough planning, design, and testing phases, ensuring the delivery of top-notch software applications.

Getting regular feedback from stakeholders after each iteration helps improve the functionality of the software application. This iterative approach is beneficial for applications that have constantly changing requirements.

Advantages of Iterative Development Methodology:

• Early elimination of errors and bugs due to iteration cycles.
• Fosters design flexibility by transcending rigid documentation constraints.
• Results and feedback from each iteration are promptly available for analysis.

Disadvantages of Iterative Development Methodology:

• Each iteration phase maintains strict boundaries without overlaps.
• Slight deviations in planning could lead to potential losses.

Use Cases of Iterative Development Methodology:

Iterative methodology is most suitable for expansive and intricate projects like Software as a Service (SaaS) applications.

Extreme Programming (XP) Model

Extreme Programming (XP) is centered on constantly elevating software quality in response to end-user insights and their requirement. The model focuses on gaining insights from prior project experiences and integrating proven best practices.

Rather than introducing novel concepts, Extreme Programming amplifies standard Agile principles to their utmost extent, hence the nomenclature. It leverages elements we've discussed in the Agile development model to foster progress, such as ongoing stakeholder engagement, iterative cycles, and persistent testing.

A distinctive aspect of XP is pair programming, where two individuals jointly develop software at a shared workstation. One person authors code while the other observes introduces fresh ideas, and maintains a holistic perspective. This practice expedites problem-solving, code review, and more.

Testing Approach:

The XP (Extreme Programming) approach follows a series of steps. It begins with a planning phase where the technical team understands what the end-users need and collaborates with the business analyst team to create a Software Requirement Specification document.

Next is the design phase, which focuses on creating a straightforward, precise design that matches the requirements. After that comes the coding phase, where the team follows best coding practices to develop the project's code.

The applications go through unit, integration, and acceptance testing in the testing phase to ensure they meet the desired goals. Following the XP methodology, the emphasis shifts to incorporating end-user feedback and improving the application's quality in the next iteration.

Advantages of XP Methodology:

• It's adaptable and easily adjusts to changing requirements.
• Prioritizing simplicity in design and implementation helps keep things straightforward and reduces unnecessary complexity.

Disadvantages of XP Methodology:

• Ongoing end-user feedback is imperative throughout the project life cycle.
• Design considerations can sometimes be overshadowed in XP practices.

Use Cases of XP Methodology:

The XP approach is apt for small, web-based, and collaborative projects, as the iterative development process thrives on persistent collaboration between developers and end-users.

Spiral Model

The Spiral methodology takes a structured approach similar to the waterfall model but adds iterative development. At the end of each phase, a prototype is created as a way to manage risks.

Testing Approach:

The Spiral model is divided into four parts. In the first part, we gather and analyze what the end-users need. Then, in the next steps, we look at potential problems and solve them quickly. The third part is about building a new software version with some new features. Finally, in the last stage, the end-users look at the latest version and give feedback, which helps us improve the next version.

Advantages of Spiral Methodology:

• Effective facilitation of risk analysis.
• Accommodation of changes, even during later stages.

Disadvantages of Spiral Methodology:

• Impractical for smaller projects due to its relatively high costs.
• The model necessitates a substantial degree of technical expertise.

Use Cases of Spiral Methodology:

The Spiral model is well-suited for extensive and complex software development endeavors.

Rapid Action Development Model

The Rapid Application Development (RAD) methodology is known for its flexibility and speed in creating and deploying software applications. It's a good choice for projects with frequent changes, like adding new features or updates.

In RAD, the focus is on building prototypes rather than extensive planning and documentation. After creating a prototype, make improvements based on feedback from end-users.

Testing Approach:

As depicted in the above illustration, the RAD methodology adheres to five distinct steps. The initial phase involves examining business requirements and outlining them. Following this, relevant data is collated to align with these requirements.

The third phase, process modeling, transforms data into clearly defined business objectives while embracing client input. Subsequently, the application generation phase encompasses coding and prototype model development. Finally, each prototype undergoes thorough testing to uncover errors and foster the creation of quality software applications.

Advantages of RAD Methodology:

• Prototypes help reduce overall development time.
• Incorporating feedback contributes to higher end-user satisfaction.

Disadvantages of RAD Methodology:

• Not suitable for smaller projects.
• Requires skilled developers and designers.
• Scalability is limited as RAD starts with a prototype.

Use Cases of RAD Methodology:

The RAD method is a good fit for projects that need to be done quickly and backed by a sufficient budget for technical expertise and tools.

Which Software Methodology to Choose?

Software testing isn't a one-size-fits-all process; it relies on various factors. Hence, while choosing a testing approach, consider the following aspects:

• Resource monitoring: The chosen testing methodology depends on available resources. For example, a typical software testing process takes approximately six weeks, factoring in the software's complexity and budget. Opt for the testing method that best suits your project's needs, timetable, and financial plan.
• Test goals: Despite the ultimate aim of bug-free software with intended functions, testing methodologies differ concerning specific goals. Some methods excel at code review, while others better validate user experience, behavior, and performance. Factoring in these elements will aid in finalizing a suitable testing approach.
• Customer and business requirements: When conducting testing, prioritizing customer and business needs is crucial. A customized customer-centric testing approach assists the QA team in spotting potential bugs and addressing customer requirements. As a result, the end product is functional, bug-free, aligns with customers' specifications and ensures end-users requirements.
• Expert inclusion: Software testing requires distinct skills compared to development. Hence, employing a dedicated testing team is highly recommended. Additionally, involving testing experts or outsourcing to a third-party testing organization helps select the ideal testing methodology for more intricate projects, leading to enhanced results.

How to Implement Software Testing Methodologies?

Creating software testing methodologies should extend beyond mere code review. It necessitates a holistic view, aligning with the software project's core objectives. Here's how to set up these methodologies with precision.

• Specify test scope: Instead of vague requirements that do not align with the software project, in the first step, you should adopt precision by outlining specific objectives related to test methodology. You need to accurately define project aims, end-user expectations, and customer perspectives. Subsequently, you can select a testing methodology that aligns, whether it's Waterfall, Agile, V-model, etc.
• Formulate testing procedures: In the next step, you have to devote time to developing comprehensive testing documentation that has information on test cases, defect reports, and other essential records to ensure consistency and efficacy throughout software testing. This repository will serve as a valuable reference point for your QA team.
• Strategic scheduling: While setting up test methodology, having a proper timeline for each step is crucial. It is well-known that achieving success in methodology implementation depends on realistic scheduling. Here, you define a timeline that accommodates the entire team's requirements to ensure the implementation of the chosen methodology. During the test process, you can identify task dependencies, the right resources, and potential risks and challenges.
• Develop a test plan: Create a thorough test plan, including the test strategy, objectives, and test cases. In this test plan, you will incorporate a well-defined timeline and allocate the necessary resources to the testing methodology.
• Clear deliverables: In the next step, you have to maintain team collaboration by offering well-defined deliverables. This means that you give information to the team on the defined outputs and results that can be achieved at different stages of the software testing process
• Test approach formulation: With scheduling and clear deliverables in place, you are then involved in devising an appropriate test approach. Drawing insights from definition documents and developer meetings, identify the most suitable test approach for the software project.
• Evaluate test results: You are supposed to execute each test case as outlined in the test plan and document the outcomes. Use these test results to detect errors and glitches, categorizing them by severity and prioritizing their resolution.
• Implement continuous testing: Recognize that testing is an ongoing, iterative process rather than a one-off endeavor. New features or functionalities can impact the entire system, necessitating regular validations. By embracing continuous testing, you enhance product quality, ensuring customer satisfaction.

When Should Testing Conclude?

Figuring out when to stop testing can be a challenge. Testing is an ongoing process, and it's nearly impossible to test everything 100%. But some signs tell us when to stop:

• Management decision: Sometimes, the management decides to stop testing. It could be because of time or budget limits, but this might affect the quality of the outcome. Or they might end it when the project meets the testing requirements and deadlines.
• Test case success: When about 95% of the test cases work well, including passing all the important ones, that's a good sign. The remaining 5% might involve less important tests.
• Meeting requirements: Testing makes sure the software behaves as expected. When it does what it's supposed to and all the important components work with different inputs, that's a good point to stop.
• Code coverage: This is about how much of the software's code has been tested. Some like to cover at least 80% of the code, while others want 100% coverage.
• Bug incidence: When the number of bugs goes below a certain level and no critical bugs are left, it's a good time to stop testing.

Conclusion

In this guide, we have given detailed information on the concepts of testing methodology, where each offers the ability to detect errors, improve performance, and enhance user experience. Different testing methodologies and models are discussed, like the Agile, RAD, Spiral, XP, Waterfall, and others. These models have reshaped the testing process by focusing on continuous integration and delivery.

We know software applications are becoming more complex due to their integration with various platforms, modules, or devices, so adopting robust testing approaches is imperative. This ensures that the developed software applications undergo thorough testing, fulfill requirements, and effectively perform in all envisioned environments. Hence, you need to choose the correct testing methodology that completely aligns with your software applications and end-user requirements.